Biography: The Life of Nietzsche

It was a propitious day: October 15, 1844. As if the family blood line could no longer endure another pastor, Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche, the firstborn son of Carl Ludwig Nietzsche and Franziska Oehler, was at last born; it was in the presbytery of Röcken, a region of Saxony annexed by Prussia. When Friedrich was baptized on the 24th of October, his father read aloud from Luke 1:66: “Everyone who heard this wondered about it, asking, ‘What then is this child going to be?’ For the Lord’s hand was with him.” The church bells surely rang out in honor of him, though they could not know whom they were honoring . . .

It seems fittingly paradoxical that the man who would

announce the death of God, and later refer to himself

as the anti-Christ and pose as Dionysus in opposition

to the Crucified, would come forth from a lineage of

devout believers. The church, in a sense, gave birth to

its fiercest opponent and one of the most influential

and dynamic philosophers of the modern age. “The

Protestant pastor is the grandfather of German philo-

sophy . . .” (The Antichrist, s. 10). On Nietzsche's

father's side, the men had been pastors since the early

17th century, and only one born of such a spiritual lin-

eage would have the coruscating insight which

Nietzsche had into the nature of religion; even several men on the maternal side of the family were pastors, too. In 1849, when Nietzsche was but five, his father died of softening of the brain (encephalitis or apoplexy).

Speculations have been made that he had syphilis, which the philosopher may have acquired congenitally, or later in a brothel, while other scholars dispute this claim. The loss of his father in his youth and his own physical sufferings, whatever their origin, would have an effect on the development of his philosophy and the manner in which he endured suffering, loss, and death. Shortly after this death, his younger brother died, leaving him and his sister Elisabeth as the sole children of the family.

In his youth, aside from the expected religious instruction, Nietzsche began studying Latin, Greek, German literature, and classical works at Pforta. He composed music and poetry, and wrote essays on philology and literature for Germania. During this time, he developed a passion for writing, a mode of self-discipline, a fervor for music, and while suffering from severe if not excruciating headaches and vision problems (he had been diagnosed with myopia of varying grades and aniscoria when he was only four years of age), struggled for self-mastery while learning to overcome many deaths (in his youth, his Aunt Auguste and his grandmother, Erdmuthe, both of whom lived with the family, died). Hölderlin, who was not well-known or revered at the time, was one of Nietzsche's favorite poets (Byron was another); he had written on essay on him, revealing even in his youth a certain iconoclasm; his professor found this essay disconcerting, and encouraged the young Nietzsche to develop interest in less fevered and saner writers. Paul Deussen, who later became a renown scholar of Sanskrit and with whom it is probable Nietzsche frequently discussed Buddhism, was one of Nietzsche's few close friends during this period. Deussen was also the son of a pastor, and as Nietzsche, expected to follow in the footsteps of his father; however, though they were confirmed together in March of 1861, they had more of an enthusiasm for ancient Greece and poets such as Anacreon.

While engaged at Pforta, Nietzsche, along with his friends Wilhelm Pinder and Gustav Krug, formed Germania, a club devoted to poetry, music, and scholarship. During their monthly meetings, they would each contribute a work. Nietzsche's early contributions concerned music and later poetry, and it was here where he would have the first audience for his thoughts. In the meantime, Nietzsche's headaches and eye condition intensified, and beginning roughly in the spring of 1862, a spiritual crisis erupted due to religious doubts. In a later letter to his sister Elisabeth, Nietzsche remarked, “If you wish to strive for peace of soul and pleasure, then believe; if you wish to be a devotee of truth, then inquire” (June 11, 1865). Nietzsche later claimed that while at Pforta he ceased to utter the blessing at meals (in spring of 1865 he chose to forgo attending church services) and was seriously considering a musical career, as his passion for music remained a primary force. In 1864, he would leave Pforta, his last literary act there being an essay on the Greek poet Theognis; by this time, Nietzsche chose to become a philologist.

In the fall of 1864, Nietzsche, along with Deussen, began studying classical philology first in Bonn, then in Leipzig. With his background in Greek and Latin literature, Nietzsche already had a firm foundation on which to base his commitment to this discipline. One of his professors, Friedrich Ritschl, who would be a mentor to Nietzsche, was an established scholar in Latin literature and was the world expert on Plautus. At the University of Bonn, Nietzsche attended both theology and philology classes; though he had not abandoned the study of theology altogether, he pursued with great interest Greek literature, art and philosophy, history, and history of art, focusing in particular on Greek tragedies and Theognis. During this time he continued to compose songs and music, and encountered David Strauss's controversial book, The Life of Jesus, Reworked for the German People; his religious crisis was on the verge of a turning point, from which many conflicts arose at home, especially with his mother.

The legendary Cologne brothel episode dates from this period, which many find to be proof for Nietzsche's contraction of syphilis. Nietzsche, who claimed he was dumbstruck before the women (a street porter brought him there mistakenly after Nietzsche asked to be taken to interesting sights), thought only the piano had any spirit, and approaching it, struck a few improvisatory chords, which freed him from his paralysis, and left the establishment at once. Some might expect the "disciple of Dionysis" to have freely indulged himself, but that perhaps is a distorted view of the Dionysian philosopher for whom self-mastery is just as vital. At the year's end, he left Bonn for Leipzig, a move encouraged by Ritschl's own move to Leipzig University.

In Leipzig, Nietzsche continued his work on Theognis, worked closely with Ritschl, and was part of a student philological club initiated by Ritschl. Nietzsche worked closely on Aeschylus texts, wrote an essay on Diogenes Laertius, and many other articles and reviews which make up the Philologica. During the Leipzig years, Nietzsche's first, or major philosophical awakening came with his discovery of Schopenhauer, whose philosophy would present entire new perspectives of viewing the world and leave him with many striking questions. He read The World as Will and Representation carefully and enthusiastically, internally debating with the philosopher while blending his knowledge of classical literature with his own lived experiences of philosophical issues; Erwin Rohde, a colleague and friend of Nietzsche's, also shared his enthusiasm for Schopenhauer. Another significant influence on Nietzsche's philosophical evolution during this period was F.A. Lange's History of Materialism (1866), and in the midst of these intellectual developments, Nietzsche began to consider teaching, encouraged by the encomiums of his professors, who said he had great pedagogical talents. Moreover, he was making efforts to improve his prose style and, under the influence of Lichtenberg and Schopenhauer, began to write aphorisms.

In 1867, Nietzsche was compelled to join the Prussian Army, interrupting his philological work for one year. During his time in the military, he injured himself while mounting a horse and was eventually declared unfit for service and released from further duties. Nietzsche became familiar with Kantian philosophy while in the army through Kuno Fischer, a neo-Kantian. He started writing a philosophical essay, "Teleology since Kant," which he thought would be his doctoral dissertation, but this project did not materialize. Shortly after his return to Leipzig, he gave a lecture to the philological society, but his loyalty was suddenly split between philology and philosophy. In this last year in Leipzig, two great events took place in Nietzsche's life. In the beginning of the academic year, he met and became friends with Richard Wagner, whose works he had been familiar with. And in the beginning of 1869 Nietzsche was chosen to be Professor Extraordinarius at Basel University through the influence of Ritschl, who recommended him with great accolades. At twenty-four, he would become an associate professor before completing his doctorate.

In his youth, Nietzsche had aspired to be a musician prior to taking up the path of philology; he composed lieder and solo piano works, but did not develop his musical talent as would a professional musician. Thus to meet Wagner, one of the eminent cultural figures of his time, was an exhilarating experience; two weeks prior to his first encounter with Wagner in Leipzig in November of 1868, Nietzsche, who had been familiar with the composer's music since his youth, said that in particular the Overture to Die Meistersinger and the Prelude to Tristan created and sustained in him "the feeling of being carried away." Wagner was also the same age as Nietzsche's long deceased father, to whom the musician bore a striking resemblance; they also shared common interest in Schopenhauer, whom Wagner said was the only philosopher who understood the essence of music. Wagner also wrote works on art, religion, and politics, and their mutual interest in Greek tragedy led to many fruitful discussions on the significance of art and its place in life. These would have a great impact on Nietzsche's first book. However, their relationship, which started so amicably, would end in a rupture due to artistic, philosophical, and personal conflicts and differences.

On April 13, 1869, Nietzsche left Naumburg for Basel and renounced his German citizenship. Though he lived in Switzerland for some time, residency requirements kept Nietzsche from actually becoming a Swiss citizen, thus he remained stateless, living the very life of one separate from state, nation, and politics as he exemplified in his philosophy. It was not only spiritually, but physically that he would and always be a "Good European."

While engaged as a professor (he would remain an academic

for but ten years), Nietzsche presented his inaugural lecture,

which was on "Homer and Classical Philology." During his time

there, he taught classical Greek, continued to present public

lectures, engaged in dialogue with colleagues and met fre-

quently with Wagner and his wife Cosima, who lived not far from

him at Tribschen, which he referred to as the "Isle of the Blessed."

Nietzsche also met Jacob Burckhardt, the well-known historian of

culture, who taught history of ancient Greek culture at Basel (his

work was published posthumously as Die Griechische Kulturge-

schichte). Burckhardt had the keen sense of a historian and an

astute understanding of the inner dynamics of ancient cultures, and this complemented Nietzsche's attempt at an interpretation of ancient Greek civilization. Nietzsche and Burckhardt attended each other's lectures and had long discussions on Greek culture, which also surely influenced Nietzsche's first work. While at Basel, Nietzsche also befriended Franz Overbeck, the Christian theologian, and Heinrich Köselitz, a student of Nietzsche's, who later became an opera composer under the pseudonym Peter Gast. He functioned as Nietzsche's amanuensis, editing his writings and proofreading galleys; towards the end of Nietzsche's life, it was said that Gast was the only person capable of deciphering the philosopher's hand-writing. During his time as a professor, Nietzsche taught Greek tragedies, Greek poetry, and Plato and the pre-Platonic philosophers. In the meantime, he was working towards a major publication and writing essays to that end; these essays would later form the bulk of Nietzsche's first book, The Birth of Tragedy, whose original title was Ursprung und Ziel der Tragödie [Origin and Goal of Tragedy], published in 1871.

The Birth of Tragedy is not a typical work in philology. It does not, for instance, present a classical text in its vernacular and interpret it; instead, around a philological theme, namely the birth of tragedy out of music and chorus, it builds a discourse derived from various sources such as modern philosophy and literature and keeps certain issues and problems of the modern age both in the background and the foreground. Some of the issues and notions Nietzsche brings forth in this book are the Apollonian, or principle of individuation, and the Dionysian, the state of intoxication (or the state where there is no individuation), dream and illusion, ecstasy and ecstatic experience, image-symbol relationship, art and creativity, plastic art and musical art, poetry, music and language, tragic culture, the tragic and tragedy, spectacle and how it is experienced, science and knowledge, Socrates and rationality, the relationship between art and science, truth and truthfulness, and the phenomenon of Wagner. Moreover, Nietzsche wrote two short essays in this period, which, though unpublished, develop parallel insights along with those of The Birth of Tragedy: Truth and Lies in an Extra-Moral Sense addresses the question of truth within the context of language, and On the Pathos of Truth is concerned with how we relate to what we call truth, that is, the experience of truth. In other notes of this period, Nietzsche deals with issues of culture and its make-up and brings out further insights on culture in general, and, in particular, on tragic culture in ancient Greece.

When this book was first published, the community of philologists condemned it; one of the first to criticize it and reveal its philological shortcomings was Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, who later became a renowned philologist. Nietzsche's friend Rohde engaged in a polemic with Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, but Wagner was compelled to save his own face. These polemics revolved on the facade of Nietzsche's work, namely the developmental-historical origin of tragedy, which is of minor significance compared to the major insights of the book. One such insight is the value and truth of the Dionysian and the ecstatic experience both for culture and for the individual; another one is the significance of art and creativity along with other human experiences. Yet another one is the importance of dealing with suffering, loss and death so as to retain a balanced existence in the world. During the polemics, Nietzsche kept silent; he must have been grateful to his friends who came to his defense, but not enthused by the way they had shown their support. However, The Birth of Tragedy had other shortcomings, some of which Nietzsche later noted himself and outlined in a new preface when the book was republished in 1886: the book was written under the influence of Schopenhauer and Wagner (some of Nietzsche's insights are masked by the language of Schopenhauer), and the last ten sections, for the most part, repeat the ideas and insights of the first fifteen sections, in addition to wantonly glorifying Wagner. Erwin Rohde later wrote and published a book on ancient Greek culture called Psyche. But, by this time, they were no longer friends, and neither The Birth of Tragedy nor Nietzsche's name is mentioned in his work.

Untimely Meditations (published 1874-76, German title Unzeitgemässe Betrachtungen, literally observations not conforming to the times) in which Nietzsche critiques the modern age in its various aspects. After having developed an interpretation of ancient Greek culture, he would use the expectations of Dionysian-tragic wisdom as a barometer to appraise the modern age. In first meditation, David Strauss, the Confessor and the Writer, he exposes modern cultural philistinism and modern complacency; modern man, he claims, is content with the information he receives from newspapers, his encyclopedic knowledge and with his operas; on account of these, he acts and feels like his culture is the best possible culture. In short, he is not a creative being, nor part of a creative culture which expects creativity from individuals. Nietzsche, on the other hand, posits the value of style and unity of style in the domain of culture; it is in this context that he critiques David Strauss as a writer. In the second meditation, On the Uses and Disadvantages for History for Life, Nietzsche re-evaluates the overestimation of the historical and the historical sense and posits, next to the historical, the relevance and significance of the unhistorical; this meditation is insightful regarding the intra-dynamics of the historical and the unhistorical, memory and forgetting. In the third meditation, Schopenhauer as Educator, the issues of education, learning, and knowledge are brought forth in relation to the life and works of Schopenhauer, whom Nietzsche praises as honest, cheerful and steadfast. As opposed to prescriptive learning, Nietzsche proposes an education based on knowing oneself and explores its possibilities in the dynamics of culture where one would find its archetypes. In the final meditation, Wagner in Bayreuth, Nietzsche points to the importance of the phenomenon of Wagner and the spectacle of Bayreuth as a locus of culture where it can transform itself through the symbolic significance of a great artistic event.

In Basel, Nietzsche had met Paul Rèe, the author of Psychological

Observations and Origin of Moral Feelings. He became friends with

him and, during his leave from the University for one year (1876-77),

traveled to Italy with him where they stayed with Malwida von

Meysenbug in Sorrento. There they read (usually Rèe would read

aloud to Nietzsche) the works of the French moralists such as

Montaigne, La Rochefoucauld and Vauvenargues. Inspired by Rèe

and the French, Nietzsche wrote aphorisms which were brought

together and published as Human, All Too Human, I & II in 1886

(originally, there were three books: Human, All Too Human, Assorted

Opinions and Maxims, and The Wanderer and His Shadow) and

Daybreak (1881). In these aphorisms, Nietzsche expresses his

thoughts on moral feelings, sensations and prejudices, and the

nature of art and artistic production, among other issues. Some of

the moral prejudices that Nietzsche reveals in these aphorisms are

pity, altruism or selfless love, revenge, shame, and vanity. He ex-

presses many other thoughts in these aphorisms, and this period

can be said to be the experimental period. He himself describes this period, in retrospect, as convalescence, recovery from the romanticism and pessimism of Wagner and Schopenhauer, two of his primary and most significant influences. In 1879, Nietzsche retires from the University with a pension due to health reasons and will begin his peripatetic existence, wandering through Germany, Switzerland (especially the Upper Engadine region), the south of France, and various cities in Italy, writing, over the course of next ten years, some of the most groundbreaking philosophical works, all while suffering and overcoming the most agonizing, if not extremely debilitating physical conditions.

Relieved from academic duties, Nietzsche finishes the two books of aphorisms and starts a new book called The Gay Science (1882), another book of aphorisms, yet significantly different from the previous two; many thoughts and ideas Nietzsche had been living with are transformed in this book, while he also further explores the problem of aesthetics and the crisis of art. Nietzsche develops a different notion of knowing and learning here, which he calls la gaya scienza (a phrase adopted from the Provencal poets lo gai saber), and some of the themes and notions that become crucial to his philosophy make their first appearance in this book; namely, the death of God, amor fati, and the eternal return. Furthermore, it is here that Nietzsche, for the first time, calls morality problematic; what he calls morality will later be coined as the morality of good and evil, the world-view or perspective which claims that there is only one truth or one true interpretation of existence. His more rigorous study of morality will come later; with The Gay Science, he is making preparations for Thus Spoke Zarathustra, of which Nietzsche said, "among my writings - stands to my mind by itself. With that I have given mankind the greatest gift that has ever been made to it so far." (Ecce Homo, Preface).

In the spring of 1882, Nietzsche met Lou Salome (who would become Lou Andreas-Salome in 1887 after marrying Carl Friedrich Andreas, a philologist) in Rome (at St. Peter's) through his friend Paul Rèe. Salome was part of a group of idealistic young women, called the Roman Club', formed by Nietzsche's friend Malwida von Meysenbug. Lou Salome was an extremely bright, attractive, and enterprising young Russian woman, who was a student at Zürich University aspiring to be a writer and would later become the confidant and lover of Rainer Maria Rilke and friend of Sigmund Freud. Nietzsche, Rèe and Lou

formed an intellectual bond which Lou called the Trinity. The attraction of both men to Lou would create tensions in the Trinity, and Nietzsche's desire to live with Lou, to be her teacher and his expectations from her to bring him out of his hermit-like life style, remained unfulfilled. The disintegration of the Trinity, aided in one sense by the intrusions of Nietzsche's sister, would cause terrible suffering in him: "I am straining every fiber of my self-control, but I have lived alone too long, fed too long on my own fat, so now I am being broken as no one else could be on the wheel of my own passions" (Letter to Franz Overbeck, 25 December 1883). Thus Spoke Zarathustra, already conceived before the encounter with Lou, with whom Nietzsche discussed its central themes, would be written on top of yet another layer of suffering.

The eternal return, which is the fundamental conception of Thus Spoke Zarathustra (1883-85), came to him as an insight by Lake Silvaplana in the Upper Engadine; he used to spend some of his time in this region while staying in a house in Sils-Maria (it has been made into a Nietzsche-Haus (there is another in Naumburg) and is open to the public). Of this insight, Nietzsche said: this highest formula of affirmation that is at all attainable, belongs in August 1881: it was penned on a sheet with the notation underneath, 6000 feet beyond man and time. That day I was walking through the woods along the lake of Silvaplana; at a powerful pyramidal rock not far from Surlei I stopped. It was then that this idea came to me (Ecce Homo). Thus Spoke Zarathustra is a unique work in terms of both its genre and its depth and simplicity, and is one of the most inimitable poetic texts of the 19th century, while also functioning as a stunning and uniquely singular parody of the Bible. Here, Zarathustra, a type that Nietzsche reconstructs out of the historical figure Zarathustra, the ancient Iranian prophet and founder of Zoroastrianism, traverses the path of self-knowledge by teaching the eternal return and the Overman, the new meaning of existence, in order to overcome the morality of good and evil.

In the next period, Nietzsche produces two works, namely Beyond Good and Evil (1886) and On the Genealogy of Morals (1887), which are his most developed critiques of what he called the morality of good and evil. In the former, Nietzsche shows the conditions of morality or its make-up, whether they are found in our philosophical, religious, linguistic or scientific experiences, and paves the way to think beyond good and evil, leaping over simple antithetical analyses and assessments. In Genealogy, Nietzsche dissects the soul configuration of the world-order shaped by morality and exposes its make-up as ressentiment, that is, rejection of, or contempt for that which is different or greater than one, bad conscience and guilt feeling, which is linked to the syndrome of crime and punishment, and the ascetic ideal which posits, as a value, the denial of the body, sensuality and sexuality. The three parts of the book make up a magnificent study of the soul, which could be called Nietzsche's psychology.

It was also in this period and just prior to it (from 1883 - 1888) that Nietzsche wrote many of the notes which were subsequently gathered and published under the misleading title, The Will to Power. Power in Nietzsche's thought is a broad notion and need not be confused with its common and everyday usage. With the notion of the will to power, Nietzsche tries to, on the one hand, link culture and life (or human being and cosmos) and, on the other hand, bring together, under one thought, various aspects of human existence, such as knowledge and art. Many other ideas are developed and explored in these notes as well, which illuminate Nietzsche's philosophy and some of its main concerns. One such idea is perspectivism, which claims that our relationship to existence is essentially perspectival or interpretive. Another one is the notion of value which, in fact, can be traced back to The Gay Science. All the other notions, such as revaluation and transvaluation, are somehow related to the notion of value. However, what has been published as The Will to Power is not a work which Nietzsche fashioned as his other books, but notes edited and compiled after his death, and during the summer of 1888 his original philosophical project was abandoned and re-developed as Revaluation of All Values, for which Nietzsche's outline was: Book 1: The Anti-Christ. Attempt at a Critique of Christianity. Book 2: The Free Spirit. Critique of Philosophy as a Nihilistic Movement. Book 3: The Immoralist. Critique of the Most Fatal Kind of Ignorance, Morality. Book 4: Dionysos. Philosophy of Eternal Return. Aside from the first book, this work was never completed, and the posthumously published notes, often referred to by people such as Heidegger as Nietzsche's magnum opus, have since been republished by Cambridge University Press as Writings from the Late Notebooks and it is untenable to refer to them as a completed text they cannot be seen in the same light as Nietzsche's other works. Though an important and extremely valuable addition, they are and remain notes, many of which were further developed by Nietzsche in other texts.

In the last period of his life as a writer, Nietzsche wrote, within the span of one year (in 1888), four short books which are highly polemical, temperamental, volatile, if not explosive, though some of his most eloquent and measured texts, where he truly accomplishes his goal of saying in ten sentences what everyone else says in a book - what everyone else does not say in a book. Twilight of the Idols is Nietzsche's critique of idealism and his re-evaluation of Socrates, one of his favorite themes; men such as Socrates, Goethe, Wagner, and others become masks or types Nietzsche uses to illustrate conditions of the soul and points to strive for. Anti-Christ is a vehement but insightful and sustained polemic against Christianity, and The Case of Wagner is his overall evaluation of Wagner where Nietzsche accepts his gratitude to the master and outlines his points of contention and what he sees as most problematic in Wagner as an artistic type. Finally, Ecce Homo, the last philosophical book Nietzsche wrote before he collapsed (his final text, rather fittingly, is actually the book of poems, Dionysos-Dithyramben), is a testimony to his life. In this autobiographical work, Nietzsche evaluates his life and his works; it is an honest, but also comic (Nietzsche with the mask of Aristophanes) appraisal of a man who knew his greatness and lived it to its fullest as a writer and a thinker.

On January 3, 1889, Nietzsche collapsed in a piazza in Turin. It is often repeated that he saw a coach-driver beating his horse, threw his arms around the horse in tears, and collapsed; however, this is but another apocryphal legend that cannot be corroborated with absolute verity. Italian Nietzsche scholar Verrecchia investigated and disputed this tale, which was originally published in an Italian newspaper somewhat akin to the Daily News called Nuova Antologia. It was written on September 16, 1900, nearly one month after Nietzsche's death, which means eleven years after the supposed incident occurred, making the account rather dubious (Verrechia, A. Nietzsche's breakdown in Turin in Harrison, T, ed. Nietzsche in Italy. (Saratoga: Stanford University Press, 1988), pp. 105- 112). The journalist who wrote the article did not sign his name to it. It was an anonymous article. Yet, that article is not the most graphic account; the one which is most well known was written more than fifty years after Nietzsche died. It includes the violent thrashing of the horse, which the first article did not, Nietzsche's wild embrace of the horse, and then, quite dramatically and as if Nietzsche possessed some uncanny degree of strength, it proclaims that after losing consciousness, Nietzsche sank to the ground still clutching the horse. This account, in almost identical words, was repeated, Verecchia notes, by a serious philosophy professor in his book on Nietzsche. The story is more and more difficult to believe, less a true scene from Nietzsche's life and more something out of Crime & Punishment. While two municipal guards may have seen Nietzsche embrace a horse and refuse to release it, the account is hardly that of the myth it has become. What is known is that Nietzsche collapsed in the piazza. When his friend Overbeck arrived sometime later, he escorted Nietzsche to Basel where he was kept in a psychiatric clinic for a week, then taken to the famous clinic in Jena where he would be close to his mother.

After staying for fourteen months at the clinic in Jena, he was taken to Naumburg where his mother and sister took care of him. The mother died in 1897 and Nietzsche was under Elisabeth's care until his death on 25 August 1900, at which point she inherited her brother's intellectual property. Nietzsche's "madness" though, as Blanchot noted, is altogether unique; in seeking, through reason, to affirm the Eternal Return, Nietzsche is "mad" because our language cannot capture, or express such a thought. However, in the silent language of his madness in which he seems to us to suffer the consequences of this passage to another language removed from the ordinary forms of temporality, he is still mad, but it is a madness in which the formulation of the return has always already engaged him. Mad, But of a madness other than ours, other than his (The Step Not Beyond, 40). As for the question of whether or not Nietzsche actually had syphilis, these claims have been vigorously disputed, in particular and at length by Richard Schain. It is improbable that Nietzsche ever had syphilis, but more likely suffered from endogenous psychosis (a schizophrenic disorder originating within the body, not from an outside agent); in a short paper, Dr. Leonard Sax argued that nearly all of Nietzsche's symptoms correlate in particular with meningioma (eye cancer) of the right optic nerve. Schain states that a final diagnosis of chronic schizophrenic disorder . . . is perfectly compatible with all of the manifestations of mental disorder and physical dysfunction exhibited by Nietzsche (The Legend of Nietzsche's Syphilis, Schain, p. 103). At very least, it is important to take these other hypotheses into consideration and not continue to perpetuate the syphilis hypothesis as if it were an incontestable fact, as has too often been done; only with the exhumation of Nietzsche's corpse will this long standing question ever be resolved with any certainty, but it is far too late for such an investigation.

In the early 20th century, Elisabeth was instrumental in distorting Nietzsche's work, deliberately forging letters and altering other passages, struggling to mold Nietzsche into an icon for the German state through editing and publishing work to suit her framing of it. She tried to establish a relationship with the Nazis by such tactics as inviting Hitler to the archives. But contrary to common (dis)knowledge, Hitler, though he did read Nietzsche, read him sparingly (in the leading biographies on Hitler, mention of Nietzsche is incidental) and was more influenced by Wagner's (who figures prominently in the biographies) anti-Semitic diatribes than by a philosopher whose contempt for the state and for his nation surely perturbed the fervent nationalist. Elisabeth, because her comprehension of Nietzsche's work was extremely limited, hired Rudolf Steiner, the Goethe scholar and founder of anthroposophy, to give her private lessons, which proved fruitless. Steiner stated that she was a complete laywoman in all that concerns her brother's doctrine and that her thinking was "void of even the least logical consistency."

It was not until just before World War II, prior to Walter Kaufmann, George Bataille's pioneering work in Acèphale would aid in emancipating Nietzsche from the stain of National Socialism, and give him back to the free spirits. Nietzsche, Bataille said, was the least patriotic of all Germans, and the least German of the Germans. The stateless individual, who always spoke against his nation and the fervor of nationalism, had finally been freed; the man who held the masses in contempt (fascism is only possible by turning individuals into a mass) and usually spoke on behalf of individuals (though community was important to Nietzsche as well, and individualism often a symptom of decadence in society) and for mixed breeding (he did at times also see this as a source of the 19th century's spiritual confusion), found in Bataille a Dionysian spirit who wrestled his work from such incongruous associations and made it radiate and dance like an exploding star, spreading out and above the sordid domains in which it was but temporarily caught. On September 24, 1886, Nietzsche stated in a letter that people will be allowed to read [my work] in about the year 2000. It has not taken that long to liberate his work from unjust and absurd correlations, but perhaps, in this new millennium, it is even freer of such associations, and we will be able to read and interpret this work with a greater degree of clarity. The great noontide may be at hand ~ has it not always been, eternally?